Citric acid production and applications of submerged fermentation

Submerged fermentation is a type of fermentation in which the microorganisms are suspended in a liquid medium. The liquid medium also contains various other nutrients and growth factors in the necessary proportions in a dissolved or a particulate solids form.

The main application of submerged fermentation technique is in the extraction of metabolites (secondary metabolites) which are needed to be in liquid form for use.

APPLICATIONS OF SUBMERGED FERMENTATION

• The primary application of submerged fermentation is in the extraction process of metabolites (mostly secondary metabolites) that find applications in their liquid form.
• Citric acid is one of the most important metabolites as the production volume of it is high, for the production of antibiotics like penicillin.
• Submerged liquid fermentations are traditionally used for the production of microbially derived enzymes like cellulolytic enzymes.

CITRIC ACID PRODUCTION

• Citric acid is widely distributed in plant and animal tissues.
• It is an intermediate of the Krebb’s cycle, by which carbohydrate gets converted to CO2, in nature.
• Citric acid can be produced on the industrial scale by employing submerged state fermentation as the fermentation method.

Type of bioreactor used for submerged fermentation: 

1. Stirred tank bioreactor
2. Airlift fermenter.

Selection of strain and storage:

• Various criteria should be checked for the selection of production strains such as:

-High citric acid yield.

-Stability of the strain.

-Adequate amount of sporulation, etc.

Microorganisms used for the production of citric acid:

-Species of Penicillium and Aspergillus.

–Aspergillus niger is used as the principal fungus for citric acid production as it can produce large quantities of citric acid while growing on a carbohydrate medium. 

• Maintenance of the culture of the selected strain is the next important step in citric acid production and is done so by the storage of spores.

Steps used to carry out fermentation to ensure abundant production:

-High sugar concentration.

-Limited nitrogen/phosphorus concentration.

-Very low concentration of heavy metals like iron and manganese.

Submerged fermentation process:

-The strain used for the submerged fermentation of citric acid is Aspergillus japonicus.

-The organism shows sub-surface growth.

-Citric acid is produced within the culture solution.

-Using submerged fermentation for the production of citric acid is economical as compared to other fermentation methods.

Uses of citric acid:

• It Is extensively used in the production of carbonated drinks.
• It is used in plasticizers.
• It is used as a chelating and sequestering agent.
• Used in the pharmaceutical and food industries as an acidulant.

ADVANTAGES 

The advantages of submerged fermentation include:

• The duration of the process is short, therefore saves time.
• The overall cost of the process is low and the yield of products is high, making it a very economical process.
• The process of purification and processing of the products is far simpler compared to other processes.
• The cost of handling is low and the handling of the fermenter is easy therefore it reduces the labour involved.

LIMITATIONS

• The overall volumetric productivity of this process is low.
• The effluent that is generated during the process is high in quantity.
• The equipment that is used is expensive and complex.
• The products that are obtained by using this process may be of low concentration.

Article by– Shaily Sharma (MSIWM041)

Sources:

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermentation

https://microbenotes.com/submerged-fermentation

FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPY

Fluorescence microscopy is an essential tool in molecular and cellular biology. It is a technique that allows one to study and visualize the cellular structures and dynamics of tissues and organelles, and macromolecular assemblies inside the cell. It was devised in the early twentieth century by various scientists like Köhler, Lehmann, Reichert and others.

The wide utilization of fluorescent proteins since their discovery have revolutionized the applications and use of the microscope in biological studies.

A fluorescence microscope uses the property of fluorescence to generate an image. It uses a high-intensity light source that excites the fluorescent molecule that may be inherently present in the sample to be studied or may be artificially labelled with a fluorescent molecule. The fluorescent molecule is called the fluorophore which is usually present in the fluorescent dye. 

Therefore, one could say that any microscope that works on the same basis to study the properties of organic or inorganic substances is a fluorescent microscope.

A fluorescence microscope is a type of optical microscope that uses fluorescence (ability of a substance to emit light on excitation) and phosphorescence (ability of a substance to continue emitting light even after the removal or withdrawal of the excitation factor). It may use these properties instead of or in addition to the properties of scattering, absorption, reflection and attenuation. 

The setup for the microscope may be simple as in an epifluorescence microscope or it may have a complicated design like that of a confocal microscope. A confocal microscope uses optical sectioning to provide a better resolution of the fluorescence image.

Principle:

Fluorescent substances are the substances that absorb light of a particular energy and wavelength and then emit light of a longer wavelength and lesser energy.  

This phenomenon of fluorescent substances can be applied to the working of the fluorescent microscope. Fluorescent dyes (also called fluorochromes or fluorophores) are molecules that have the ability to absorb excitation light at a given wavelength, and then emit light of a comparatively longer wavelength after a delayed time interval.

In practical use, the sample is stained with a fluorescent dye and then illuminated with a blue light. The blue light (short wavelength) is absorbed by the fluorophores of the fluorescent dye, and the green light (which has longer wavelength) is emitted. This change is called the Stokes shift.

The light source that is used in fluorescent microscopy is a high intensity mercury arc lamp. The lamp emits white light when then passes through a device called an ‘exciter filter’. (as shown in the figure) This device filters the emission light to reveal the location of the fluorophores. It allows only the blue component of white light (white light comprises of coloured light of all wavelengths) to pass through and prevents the passage of light of other colors.

.

The dichroic mirror is used to reflect the blue light and allows the green light to pass. The angle of the mirror is fixed in such a way that the blue light is reflected towards the specimen placed below. It allows the passage of green light.

Finally, when the light reaches the ‘barrier filter’, it blocks out or removes all the remnants of the residual blue light from the specimen which may not have been ideally reflected by the dichroic mirror.

Thus, enabling the observer to perceive the glowing green portions of the specimen against the jet-black background of the dark field condenser that is used. The portions of the specimen that have not been stained remain invisible to the eye and this is how fluorescence microscopy provides a sharp image for the observation of the fine and intricate components of the sample to be studied.

Components:

The essential components of the fluorescence microscope are:

• Fluorescent dyes (fluorophore): Chemical compounds that have the ability to re-emit light upon excitation. Examples include; nucleic acid stain like DAPI and Hoechst, phalloidin etc.
• Light source: This is provided by a bright mercury vapor arc lamp, xenon lamp or LEDs with a dichroic excitation filter, lasers etc.
• Heat filter: The lamp produces infrared rays which generate considerable heat. No other major uses of the heat filter exist.)
• Exciter filter: The light undergoes cooling and passes through the exciter filter which allows the passage of the shorter waves which play a role in excitation of the fluorochrome dye coated sample on the slide and does not allow the other wavelengths to pass through.
• Dichroic mirror: An accurate colour filter/mirror which selectively allows the passage of light of a particular wavelength and reflects the others. 
• Condenser: A dark field condenser is usually used because it provides a dark background and it is easy to detect even mild fluorescence exhibited by the sample
• Barrier filter: It removes all the remnants of the exiting light and is situated in the body tube of the microscope between the objectives and the eye piece. 

Applications: 

• Identify structures in fixed and live biological samples in microbiological studies.
• Used in food chemistry for the assessment of the structural organization and spatial distribution of the components of food.
• Used for the study of mineral like coal and graphene oxide in minerology.
• Used in the textile industry for analysis of fibre dimensions. 

Article By- Shaily Sharma (MSIWM041)

References:

Fluorescence Microscopy (nih.gov)

Immunofluorescence staining – PubMed (nih.gov)

Fluorescence Microscopy – Explanation & Labelled Images (microscopeinternational.com)

Vaccine

QUIZ ON VACCINE

Que 1. Vaccine is prepared by

     a. weakened microorganism              b. toxins

        c. Surface protein                           d. all of the above

Que 2. The term vaccine and vaccination are coined by-

         a. Edward jenner                             b. Louis Pasture

         c. Robert Koch                                    d. Alexander Fleming

Que 3. Vaccine stimulates-

          a. T-cells                                               b. B-cells

          c. None of the above                      d. Both A and B

Que 4. Edward Jenner uses _______ to confer immunity against smallpox

          a. Polio virus                                     b. Cowpox virus

         c. HIV virus                                          d. Influenza virus

Que 5. _____ vaccine containing live organism which is weakened in the lab so that it cannot cause disease and activate the immune system against the antigen.

         a. Live attenuated                   b. Killed or Inactivated

         c. Subunit                                d. DNA

Que 6. Microorganism causing diseases are killed by the means of chemicals, heat or radiation. These are more stable and safer than live vaccines reason is that the dead microorganism cannot mutate back to cause diseases. Such type of vaccine is known as

         a. Live attenuated vaccine                  b. Killed or Inactivated vaccine

        c. Subunit vaccine                               d. DNA vaccine

Que 7. In ________ vaccine only the part which server as antigen and stimulate the immune system is used to prepare vaccine.

         a. Live attenuated                   b. Killed or Inactivated

         c. Subunit                                d. DNA

Que 8. The _____ vaccine is the DNA sequence used as vaccine.

         a. Live attenuated                   b. Killed or Inactivated

         c. Subunit                                d. DNA

Que 9. Examples of live attenuated vaccine-

        a. Mumps vaccine                   b. Measles vaccine

        c. Chickenpox                         d. All of the above

Que 10. Examples of DNA vaccine

        a. West nile virus                     b. Herpes virus

        c. Both A and B                      d. None of the above

ANSWERS

1. (D), 2. (A), 3. (D), 4. (B), 5. (A), 6. (B), 7. (C), 8. (D), 9. (D), 10. (C)

For detail study click on the link– Vaccine

Inflammation

Introduction

Inflammation is part of the complex biological reaction of the tissues of the body to harmful stimuli, such as bacteria, damaged cells or irritants, and is a defensive reaction involving immune cells, blood vessels and molecular mediators. 

Inflammation has the purpose of removing the initial cause of cell injury, clearing necrotic cells and damaged tissues from the initial insult and inflammatory process, and initiating tissue repair.

Inflammation is a generalized response, and thus, opposed to adaptive immunity, which is unique to each pathogen, it is regarded as a mechanism of innate immunity. Too little inflammation could cause the harmful stimulus (e.g. bacteria) to slowly kill tissue and threaten the organism’s survival.

There are two main types of inflammation:

1. Acute inflammation: It typically occurs for a short time (though sometimes severe). In two weeks or less, it generally resolves itself. Symptoms soon emerge of an injury or illness after acute inflammation is seen in the body.

2. Chronic inflammation: It is a slower form of inflammation and usually less severe. Usually, it lasts longer than 6 weeks. Even when there is no prominent disease, injury or illness, it can happen, and it doesn’t necessarily stop when the disease or injury is cured. Autoimmune conditions and even prolonged stress have been associated with chronic inflammation.

Inflammation symptoms

The five major signs that indicate the presence of inflammation are:

• heat
• pain
• redness
• swelling
• loss of function

Symptoms widely depend on the stage and condition that causes the inflammation in the body. Other symptoms that are observed in chronic inflammation include:

• body pain
• constant fatigue and insomnia
• depression, anxiety, and other mood disorders
• gastrointestinal issues, like constipation, diarrhea, and acid reflux
• weight gain
• frequent infections

Causes that lead to inflammation in the body

There are different factors which cause inflammation in the body. 

This include:

• Acute and chronic disorders 
• Some drugs 
• The body cannot quickly remove exposure to irritants or foreign materials. 

A chronic inflammatory response may also arise from repeated episodes of acute inflammation. 

In persons with autoimmune conditions, there are also certain forms of foods that can induce or exacerbate inflammation. 

These foods include:

• sugar
• refined carbohydrates
• alcohol
• processed meats
• trans fats

Treatment of Inflammation

There are a number of tests that can be carried out which show the presence of inflammation in the body. It can be as easy to combat inflammation as improving one’s diet.Inflammation is greatly subsided by eliminating sugar, trans fats, and processed foods. Some common anti-inflammatory foods are:

• berries and cherries
• fatty fish
• broccoli
• avocados
• green tea
• Tomatoes

Other remedies that can be practiced are:

• Consistently take required vitamins. 
• To decrease swelling and pain,  hot or cold treatment for physical wounds can be used.
• Exercise more often.
• Manage and lower the levels of stress. 
• Stop smoking. 
• Treat any preexisting conditions and control them.

Other treatment options:

NSAIDs and aspirin

In treating short-term pain and inflammation, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are typically the first line of protection. It is an over the counter drug.

NSAIDs that are popular include: 

• Aspirin
• ibuprofen (Advil, Motrin, Midol) 
• naproxen (Aleve)

Corticosteroids 

Corticosteroids are a form of steroid widely used to treat allergic reactions as well as swelling and inflammation. 

Typically, corticosteroids come as either a nasal spray or an oral pill. 

Article By- Ria Fazulbhoy (MSIWM031)

Research methodology

By- Ezhuthachan Mithu Mohanan, ( MSIWM043 )

Research methodology: The method of conducting research, by formulating problems, finding objectives, presenting result is all the crucial steps in any research. Sources of data and population consideration, ethical values, sample determination, methods executing plays a vital role before undertaking the research proposal.

Objectives

• Obtaining novel opinions and developing skills
• Characterizing particular character, group or condition.
• Finding interlinked connections
• To test hypothesis.

In biological research following types can be included:

Process

Identifying Research problem: 

  The initial step of any researcher is to identify the general are of interest. There are main two steps in formulating any research 

• Understanding the problem
• Reshape according to analytical view.

Having guidance and restoring problems already existing and engaging oneself in discussion makes it easy for identifying the research problem.

Literature review: 

 This is basically done to get a familiarity with the problem. Literature can be conceptual, empirical, etc. There are many source of literature; it could be abstracts, journals, bibliographies, conferences, academic journals, government reports, books. This helps in formulating problems. After the review one should focus on writing a synopsis.

Formulation of hypothesis:

Hypothesis is a tentative explanation made based on the available limited evidences. Formulating hypothesis enables to find the objective as well as result interpretation. Various approaches for formulating hypotheses:

• Discussion with guide, and coworkers
• Assessments of records and available data
• Evaluating previous studies done
• Personal investigation

Research design:

After the research problem is designed then the next step is to design the research. It involves choosing various components for  research Study.

Determining sample:

Selection of sample is utmost necessary for the development of any protocol or formulation. There are mainly two types of samples, which includes Nonprobability and probability.

• Nonprobability sampling:  subjective methods of sampling
• Probability sampling: It is simple random sampling, systematic sampling, cluster sampling

 Data Collection:

The process of gathering information enabling answer stated questions, testing hypothesis and evaluating outcomes. To maintain integrity of research accurate data collection is necessary.

Proper data collected must include:

• Ability to answer research questions
• Ability to repeat and validate the study
• Less wastage of resources
• No compromises for the fulfillment of requirement
• No harm to human or subject studies

To maintain integrity there are two elements which is helpful

Quality assurance	Quality control
Before data collection	During or after data collection
Standardization of protocol	Careful documentation of protocol.

Data analysis:

Process of applying statistical and logical techniques systematically, to describe, illustrate and evaluate data is known as data analysis.

Proper data analysis must include:

• Skills to analyze data
• Appropriate subgroup analysis
• Acceptable discipline norms
• Statistical significance
• Clearly defined objective
• Accurate results
• Presenting data
• Reliability and validity
• Appropriate category considerations

 Testing hypothesis:

Process to evaluate the strength of evidence and providing framework for determination.

The two main steps in testing hypothesis is framing null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis

Null hypothesis: No statistical significance exists in the given set of observation. This is assumed to be true.

Alternative hypothesis: It is opposite to null hypothesis

 Interpretation: After analytical and experimental study, the drawn inferences is known as interpretation. The major aspects of interpretation is 

• Establish continuity
• And establish explanation concepts.

• Preparation of report:

There should always be the necessary documentation of each and every result. The research reports contains following  elements

• Description and methodology
• Obtained results
• The recommendations made

There are two types of Research reports 

• Technical reports: which aim to specific group of people, including scientist, researchers, guides, belonging to the area
• Popular reports: which can be understood my lay man or common people, in more easy and feasible way, with less technical words.

• Presentation of results: It can be done in various ways including writing research papers, presenting in conferences, writing drafts, discussing, Seminar presentation or oral presentation.

PATHOGEN PROFILE OF STREPTOCOCCUS PYOGENES

BY: SHAILY SHARMA (MSIWM041)

Streptococcus pyogenes (which is also called group A streptococcus) is by far one of the most harmful and serious streptococcal pathogens of humans. It is a strict pathogen that inhabits the throat, nasopharynx and occasionally even the skin in humans. 

Dissemination of the bacteria to other sites within the body causes a variety of severely invasive conditions which have an association with high morbidity and mortality.

When these streptococci are grown on blood agar, typically, small zones of beta-hemolysis of 2-3mm are seen.

Streptococcus pyogenes also demonstrate the ability of biofilm formation to communicate with other neighboring cells like other bacterial cells. The gene for biofilm formation controlled via quorum sensing.

Characteristics of the pathogen are:

• Microscopic Morphology: 

• It is a gram-positive coccus which is arranged in chains and pairs.
•  It is not usually motile and the occurrence of motility is considered rare.
•  It is non-spore-forming.

• Identification:

•  A catalase test is used to distinguish the Streptococcus (negative) from the Staphylococcus (positive).
•  The hallmarks of S. pyogenes include beta-hemolysis and sensitivity to bacitracin (antimicrobial agent).
•  A rapid way for identification is to use monoclonal antibodies that detect the C-carbohydrate found on the surface of the cell of S. pyogenes. 

• Habitat:

•  S. pyogenes is a fairly strict parasite which is found mainly in the throat, nasopharynx and occasionally in the skin of humans.
•  Most people (approximately 5% to 15%) are asymptomatic carries.

• Virulence factors: 

• The cell surface antigens present on S. pyogenes provide the virulence factors to the pathogen. 
• Some examples of such surface antigens are:

1. C-carbohydrate: It prevents the bacterium from getting dissolved in the lysozyme, which may be present in the throat and the nasopharynx, of the host.
2. Fimbriae: These are present on the outer surface of the cell. They are responsible for enhancing the adherence of the bacterium to the host cell.
3. M-protein: This protein helps in the resistance to phagocytosis and also improves the adherence of the pathogen to the host cells.
4. C5a protease: It is an enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of the C5a protein of the complement system which prevents the hosts immune system from attacking the pathogen by disrupting the formation of the membrane attack complex (MAC).
5. Some strains of the bacterium have hyaluronic acid (HA) present on the surface which is identical to the HA found in host cells, this HA prevents the immune response by the host.
6. Streptolysin O (SLO) and Streptolysin S (SLS): They are two different type of hemolysins which damage the hosts leukocytes, heart and liver muscles.
7. Streptokinase, hyaluronidase, streptodornase: These are enzymes which aid in the invasion of the hosts body by digesting fibrin clots, connective tissues and DNA respectively.

• Primary infections/Disease: 

• It causes local cutaneous infections like impetigo (pyoderma) or erysipelas which is more invasive.
•  Streptococcal pharyngitis is caused by the infection of the tonsils and the pharyngeal mucous membranes (strep throat) which can lead to scarlet fever if left untreated. 
• The long-term complications of S. pyogenes are rheumatic fever and acute glomerulonephritis. 

• Control and treatment: 

• S. pyogenes can be controlled by limiting the contact between carries of the bacterium and immunocompromised hosts. 
• Isolation of patients must be done and care should be taken while handling the infectious secretions. 
• The treatment is usually a simple course of penicillin since the bacterium shows little drug resistance. 

S. pyogenes do have some applications in the field of bionanotechnology and genome editing as well. 

– In bionanotechnology; the proteins of S. pyogenes have some unique properties which are harnessed to produce a route to enhance the effectiveness of antibody therapy. 

– In genome editing; The CRISPR system of S. pyogenes is used to recognize and destroy DNA from invading viruses, thereby stopping the infection.

Sources:

Baruah K, Bowden TA, Krishna BA, Dwek RA, Crispin M, Scanlan CN (2012). “Selective Deactivation of Serum IgG: A General Strategy for the Enhancement of Monoclonal Antibody Receptor Interactions”. Journal of Molecular Biology. 420 (1–2): 1–7. doi:10.1016/j.jmb.2012.04.002. PMC 3437440. PMID 22484364.

Deltcheva E, Chylinski K, Sharma CM, Gonzales K, Chao Y, Pirzada ZA, Eckert MR, Vogel J, Charpentier E (March 2011). “CRISPR RNA maturation by trans-encoded small RNA and host factor RNase III”. Nature. 471 (7340): 602–607. Bibcode:2011Natur.471..602D. doi:10.1038/nature09886. PMC 3070239. PMID 21455174.

Foundations in Microbiology (ninth edition) by Kathleen Park Talaro, Barry Chess

PHYTOHORMONES

By: N. Shreya Mohan (MSIWM042)

Plant hormone, also known as phytohormones are signal mediated molecules produced by plants commonly controlling plant growth aspects such as defense mechanisms, stress tolerance, metabolism, reproduction and size. Hormones are elated within the plant by utilizing four types of movements. For localized movement, cytoplasmic streams within cells where delayed diffusion of ions and molecules between the cells are utilized. Vascular tissues are used to commute hormones from one part of the plant to another. These include phloem that move sugars from the leaves to the roots and flowers, and xylem that moves water and mineral solutes from the roots to the foliage of the plant respectively.

We will ponder over the major 5 plant hormones systematically and briefly-

• AUXINS– This hormone particularly takes part in cell enlargement, cell growth bud formation. It was the first hormone to have been discovered among the “big 5”. In collaboration with other hormones, auxins promote control the growth of stems, roots etc. It is primarily produced in certain parts of plants that are actively growing such as the stem. Auxins act in such a way that it inhibits growth of buds lower than the stem. This phenomenon is the apical dominance. In seeds, they promote certain protein synthesis, to which they develop after inside the flower after pollination resulting in fruit production. The most common found of auxin in plants are indole-3-acetic acid

• GIBBERELLIN- These set of chemicals are produced naturally by the plants and fungi too. It was first discovered by Japanese researchers where they noticed a certain chemical compound caused by a fungus called Gibberella fujikuroi that produced abnormal growth and falling over in rice plants. The chemical causing this was isolated and named Gibberellin ever since. They play a vital in plant life by making the stems longer by elongating the nodes between the stems. They are also required by the pollen during the process of fertilization.

• ABSCISIC ACID- Also known as the ABA. The chemical is usually abundant in chloroplast, thereby produced in the leaves of the plants particularly when the plant is under stress. It acts as a plant growth inhibitor and affects bud and seed dormancy. Without ABA, the seed would grown in warm temperatures during winters and can get killed if frozen. Therefore, plants start off as a seed with high concentrations of ABA. During water stress, ABA plays a pivotal role in plants. The water deficient plant sends a signal in via the root to the leaves, causing the ABA precursors to act and move back to roots, which ultimately closes the stomata from further transpiring.

• CYTOKININS- These group of chemical compounds are responsible for shoot formation and cell division. They are also responsible for mediating auxin transport throughout the plant. They also help delay senescence. They were initially named kinins as they were isolated from yeast. Cytokinin counter the apical dominance as created by auxins. They, with conjunction with ethylene promotes abscission of leaves, flowers.

• ETHYLENE-It is readily found in fast and dividing cells. They have very little solubility because they are gaseous in nature thereby diffusing easily from the plant. The concentration of ethylene depends on the amount of it diffusing and leaving the plant. The main role of ethylene is fruit ripening.

REFERENCES-

Plant Growth Hormones

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plant_hormone

STEM CELLS

                     By: N. Shreya Mohan (MSIWM042)

Stem cells are a group of undifferentiated cells that will differentiate into various types cells and proliferate indefinitely. They originate from cell lineages. They exact opposite to the progenitor cells, which does not proliferate indefinitely. In mammal, typically about 50-150 cells combine to form the inner cell mass (ICM) during the blastocyst stage of the embryonic development. These cells are stem cells too, having the ability to differentiate into various cell of the body. But this process is characterized by differentiating into there germ layers (layers that differentiate and give rise to tissues, organs). The three germ layers are ectoderm, endoderm and mesoderm particularly clear in gastrulation stage. These can systematically be isolated and cultured invitro during the stem cell stage and they are known as embryonic stem cells (ESCs). Parallelly, adult stem cells are found in particular areas such as the bone marrow or gonads. Their purpose, unlike the ESCs is to replenish the lost cells of the body, most common stem cells are the hemopoietic stem cells, which replenish blood and immune cells. Mesenchymal stem cells maintain bone cartilage and fat cells. The term “stem cell” was given by Theodor Boveri and Valentin Hacker during the 19^th century. The properties of the stem cell were given by Ernst McCulloh and James Till. We will ponder over the properties too-

• Self-renewal- The ability of the cell to undergo numerous cycles of division and cell growth is known as cell proliferation. This should be done while the undifferentiated state.
• Potency- The capability and power of the cell to differentiate into specialized cell types. Whether it be totipotent, pluripotent, multipotent or unipotent.

Potency refers to the potentiality to be able to differentiate into respective cell types. We will dive into a brief cognizance of each of the potent type:

1. Totipotent- Also known as omnipotent, these stem cells into embryonic as well as cells which are not embryonic. These cells have the ability to make a complete, functional organism. Cells include the product between the fusion of sperm and egg and the cells made after the first few divisions.
2. Pluripotent- They are the known “ancestors” of totipotent cells. They can differentiate into almost all cells, specifically, the cells derived from the three germ layers.
3. Multipotent- These cells will differentiate those type of cells that are closely related to each other.
4. Oligopotent- These cells will only differentiate into particular cells, such as the myeloid stem cells or the lymphoid cells.
5. Unipotent- These cells do not differentiate into any cell, but they do have the property of self-renewal (unlike the progenitor cells).

Stem cell therapy- a boon or a bane?

A filed with high scope, stem cell therapy is being used to treat diseases. Bone marrow replacement is one of a stem cell research which has proven effective in clinical trials. One good advantage of getting treated under this is that they lower symptoms of the disease to some extent. This leads to reduced intake of drugs required to supress the disease. One con is that the patients may require immunosuppression because the patient undergoes radiation before the transplant to remove the existing cells. This can prove detrimental chronically. For ESCs, ethics come into play as few argue that killing a new lifeform is considered unethical. 

Therefore, we should look into several parameters and be aware for it run without hurdles because stem cells have a lot of scope in the future.

 REFERENCES-

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/323343

BIOTECHNOLOGY

BY: Ezhuthachan Mithu Mohanan (MSIWM043)

In the emerging field of science and technology, Biotechnology is Growing and Developing field, where new ideas and Experiments and research make this field unique and diversifying. 

Biotechnology: The branch of science which uses technology with living system is biotechnology. Biotechnology uses modern system of modification of biological systems. There are many disciplines that belong to the field of Biotechnology. The development of various methods, approaches and research in this field gives a new way of approaching science and its outcomes.

Biotechnology an accidental history: 

Even though we consider biotechnology to be a modern science, but it was way 1000 years back when the methods and approaches where used by our ancient people, Around 7000 years ago there was accident use of bacteria to make vinegar by Mesopotamia. Before 2,300 years Theophrastus thought that brad beans left magic in soil, but later it was concluded that some bacteria’s could fix nitrogen which enriched the soil. Development of gene banks is not a new concept, In1495 BC Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt used the concept of collecting specimens of plants which produced Frankincense (hardened gum-like material from trunk of the Boswellia sacra tree). Fermentation was always an ancient method which evolved with upcoming generation. In 19^th century Sir Louis Pasteur discovered the fermenting beer using yeast. Gregor Mendel the father of genetics, was the one who believed that mathematics can be used with biology, but since his ideas and concepts were new and people considered it unbelievable was never awarded during is period. 

Evolution of Biotechnology :

• 6000 BC :Babylonians used yeast in beer industry 
• 320 BC :  Aristotle coined the theory of inheritance from father 
• 1630 : William Harvey explained sexual reproduction
• 1673:  Anton van Leeuwenhoek developed Microscope., identified that these microorganism
• 1859: Charles Darwin  Proposed Natural selection
• 1863 : Pasteurization discovered by Pasteur
• 1863 : Pasteurization discovered by Pasteur
• 1870: Mitosis discovered by Walter  Flemming
• 1880: Louis Pasteur discovered weak stain of Cholera
• 1902: Sutton discovered that segments get transferred from Chromosomes
• 1906: Salvarsan was discovered by Paul Ehrlich 
• 1907: Mutation theory by Hunt Morgan 
• 1909:Wilhelm Johannsen Coined word genotype and phenotype
• 1912:William Lawrence Bragg Discovered application of X-Rays
• 1926: The Theory of gene by Morgan
• 1928: Transforming principle by Fredrick Griffith
• 1941: George Wells Beadle and Edward L Tatum proposed one gene one enzyme theory 
• 1944: Selman Abraham Waksman discovered streptomycin as antibiotic
• 1945–1950: Animal tissue culture developed
• 1947: transposable elements  by Barbara MacClintock
• 1950: Chargaff rule
• 1953: Double helix model by Watson and crick
• 1957:Crick and Gamov studied ‘central dogma
• 1972: First recombinant DNA molecule
• 1973: Ames test
• 1990: Human Genome Project commencement 
• 1993: Kary Mulis developed PCR

Biotech Industries: 

1.  Genentech Inc. : This Company produced somatostatin in a bacteria in 1977
2.  Eli Lily : produced insulin using site directed Mutagenesis
3. Chiron crop: developed recombinant vaccine for hepatitis
4. Calgene Inc. : tomato polygalacturonase DNA used to synthesize antisense RNA
5. Novo Nordisk : focus mainly on Diabetes and hormone replacement therapy
6. Regeneron : Aims to develop largest gene sequencing
7. Alexion : develop immune-regulatory drugs
8. Biomarin  : Develop drugs for lysosomal storage disorder
9. Alkermes : Treatment for central nervous disorder
10. Ionis : Develop  RNA-based therapeutic products

 Top Indian Biotech Industries 

1. Biocon Limited:  Manufacture biotechnology products
2. Serum Institute of India: Worlds largest vaccine manufacturer
3. Panacea Biotec : 3^rd largest Biotech company

Scope of Biotechnology : 

Since, Biotechnology shares an integrated value with many other disciplines of science , it holds a very key and vital role in the field of science. The various fields associated with biotechnology is as follows 

“Biotechnology is the new brightest star in the field of techniques and Biology”- E Mithu  

DIABETES

BY: Ezhuthachan Mithu Mohanan (MSIWM043)

Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by hyperglycaemia which results in a lack of insulin secretion, insulin action, or both the conditions. Metabolic abnormalities are caused due to a low level of resistance to insulin. The effect of symptoms can be classified based on the type and duration of diabetes. Diabetes has also been associated with many metabolic disorders such as acromegaly and hypercortisolism for example insulin resistance has been observed in patients with acromegaly in the liver. Hypercortisolism (Cushing syndrome) produces visceral obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia which leads to hyperglycaemia and reduces glucose tolerance. Besides, diabetes been associated with metabolic disorders, clinical convergence between type 1 diabetes (T1D), and type 2 diabetes(T2D) is also observed. T2D patients develop a progressive decline in total beta-cell mass. Thus there are many interlinked complications due to diabetes.

According to the report by WHO 2019, 10 main issues demand attention one of them is noncommunicable diseases such as diabetes, cancer, and heart disease. These are collectively responsible for 70% of deaths worldwide. According to the National Health Portal, the Government of India, nearly 5.8 million deaths occur due to noncommunicable diseases in India (WHO 2015). As per data provided by Directorate General of Health Services Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Government of India (MoHFW) 2016-2017, 2.24 core persons were screened for Common noncommunicable diseases like diabetes, hypertension, cardiovascular disorders, and common cancers. From this, 9.7 % was diagnosed to be diabetes, 12.09% was diagnosed to be hypertension, 0.55% was diagnosed to be cardiovascular disease and 0.17% was with common cancers.

Events occurred from discovery of Diabetes to development of various drugs 

YEAR	EVENTS
1552 BC	HESY-RA documented urination as symptom of mysterious disease
133 AD	Araetus of Cappodocia coined the word diabetes
1675	Thomas Willis coined the word mellitus
1776	Dobson confirmed presence of excess sugar in patients
1800	Discovered chemical test for presence of sugar in urine
1700’s and 1800’s	Physician began to realize dietary changes help manage diabetes
1857	Claude Bernard confirmed that the diabetes occur due to excess glucose production
1870’s	During Franco Prussian war French physician Apollinaire Bouchardat proved that the diabetes patients symptoms improved due to war related food rationing
1889	Oskar Minkowski and Joseph Von Mering extract obtained from dogs pancreas
Early 1900	Development of oat cure, potato therapy, starvation diet.George Zuelzar injected pancreatic extract to control diabetes
1916	Boston scientist Elliott Joslin wrote book “ The Treatment Of Diabetes Mellitus “
1922	Frederick Banting discovered insulin to treat diabetes and won Nobel Prize in medicine 1923
1978	Production of recombinant human DNA insulin
1996	For the treatment of type 22 diabetes Thiazolidinediones (TZDs) were introduced.
2005	The  amylin analogue known as pramlintide, which was approved by the FDA
2008	Colesevelam approved for type 2 diabetes by FDA
2009	Bromocriptine approved for diabetes
2013	Canagliflozin  is the first SGLT- 2 inhibitor  approved by FDA  [Sodium Glucose Co-Transporter 2 Inhibitors], Dapagliflozin approved in 2014 by FDA

(Source: Saudi Med et al., 2002, John et al., 2014)

Diagnosis of Diabetes: 

There are several methods used for the diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus. According to American Diabetes Association (ADA) the most standard diagnostic criteria is as follows 

1. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c)
2. Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG)
3. Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)

 Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c):

The average level of blood sugar over past two to three months can be diagnosed using hemoglobin A1c test. The main advantage of this type of diagnosis is that there is no need of fasting. A1c is measured using percentage The standard referred by ADA for normal person is less than 5.7%.

 Diagnosis of Diabetes by checking Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c)

	Hemoglobin A1c
Normal	Less than 5.7%
Prediabetes	5.7% to 6.4%
Diabetes	6.5% higher

Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG):

It is used to check fasting blood sugar levels. The patient should fast for 8 hours before the test. It is mainly done during morning. For normal person the FPG is lower than 100mg/dl.

Diagnosis of Diabetes by checking Fasting Plasma Glucose (FPG)

	FPG
Normal	100mg/dl or less
Pre diabetes	100 mg/dl to 125 mg/dl
Diabetes	126 mg/dl or high

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT)

This method is used to diagnose blood sugar level before and after 2 hours of a sweet drink. For normal person the OGTT is less than 140mg/dl

 Diagnosis of Diabetes by checking Oral Glucose Tolerance (OGTT)

	OGTT
Normal	140mg/dl or less
Pre diabetes	149 to 199mg/dl
Diabetes	200 mg/dl or high