Vaccine

QUIZ ON VACCINE

Que 1. Vaccine is prepared by

     a. weakened microorganism              b. toxins

        c. Surface protein                           d. all of the above

Que 2. The term vaccine and vaccination are coined by-

         a. Edward jenner                             b. Louis Pasture

         c. Robert Koch                                    d. Alexander Fleming

Que 3. Vaccine stimulates-

          a. T-cells                                               b. B-cells

          c. None of the above                      d. Both A and B

Que 4. Edward Jenner uses _______ to confer immunity against smallpox

          a. Polio virus                                     b. Cowpox virus

         c. HIV virus                                          d. Influenza virus

Que 5. _____ vaccine containing live organism which is weakened in the lab so that it cannot cause disease and activate the immune system against the antigen.

         a. Live attenuated                   b. Killed or Inactivated

         c. Subunit                                d. DNA

Que 6. Microorganism causing diseases are killed by the means of chemicals, heat or radiation. These are more stable and safer than live vaccines reason is that the dead microorganism cannot mutate back to cause diseases. Such type of vaccine is known as

         a. Live attenuated vaccine                  b. Killed or Inactivated vaccine

        c. Subunit vaccine                               d. DNA vaccine

Que 7. In ________ vaccine only the part which server as antigen and stimulate the immune system is used to prepare vaccine.

         a. Live attenuated                   b. Killed or Inactivated

         c. Subunit                                d. DNA

Que 8. The _____ vaccine is the DNA sequence used as vaccine.

         a. Live attenuated                   b. Killed or Inactivated

         c. Subunit                                d. DNA

Que 9. Examples of live attenuated vaccine-

        a. Mumps vaccine                   b. Measles vaccine

        c. Chickenpox                         d. All of the above

Que 10. Examples of DNA vaccine

        a. West nile virus                     b. Herpes virus

        c. Both A and B                      d. None of the above

ANSWERS

1. (D), 2. (A), 3. (D), 4. (B), 5. (A), 6. (B), 7. (C), 8. (D), 9. (D), 10. (C)

For detail study click on the link Vaccine

Corona Virus

QUIZ ON CORONA VIRUS

Que 1: Latin word “corona” means

        a. Crown                  b. Lethal

        c. Spherical             d. Contagious

Que 2: Coronavirus belongs to _______ subfamily-

        a. Avulavirinae            b. Comovirinae

        c. Orthocoronavirinae       d. Parvovirinae

Que 3: SARS cov was transmitted from-

        a. Civet cats             b. Camels

        c. Dogs                      d. Bats

Que 4: MERS cov was transmitted from-

         a. Civet cats          b. Camels

         c. Dogs                   d. Bats

Que 5: Arrange in sequence

                a. A- Nucleocapsid  protein and Rna

                    B- Lipid bilayer membrane

                    C- Spike glycoprotein 

                b. A- Lipid bilayer membrane

                    B- Spike glycoprotein 

                    C- Nucleocapsid  protein and Rna

                c. A- Nucleocapsid  protein and Rna

                    B- Spike glycoprotein 

                    C- Lipid bilayer membrane

                d. None of the above

ANSWER:

1. (a)  2. (c)  3. (a)  4. (b)  5. (c)

For detail study click on the link Corona Virus

MONOCLONAL ANTIBODIES

BY: SAI MANOGNA (MSIWM014)

Most antigens include multiple epitopes, thereby inducing the proliferation and differentiation of several B cells’ clones, each derived from a B-cell that recognizes a specific epitope. The serum antibodies resulting from this are heterogeneous, consisting of a mixture of antibodies, each unique to one epitope. This polyclonal antibody response facilitates the localization, phagocytosis, and complement-mediated lysis of the antigen; it thus has strong in vivo benefits for the organism. Sadly, the antibody heterogeneity that improves in vivo immune defense also decreases an antiserum’s effectiveness for different in vitro uses. These monoclonal antibodies derived from a single clone and, therefore, unique to a single epitope are preferable for most research, diagnostic, and therapeutic purposes.

1. It is not possible to specifically biochemically purify a monoclonal antibody from a polyclonal antibody preparation.

2. Georges Kohler and Cesar Milstein created a system for the preparation of monoclonal antibodies in 1975, which soon became a key technology in immunology.

3. They were able to create a hybrid cell called a hybridoma by fusing a regular activated, antibody-producing B-cell with a myeloma cell that possessed the myeloma cell’s immortal growth properties secreted the antibody formed by the B cell.

4. As a result, hybridoma cell clones that secrete massive amounts of monoclonal antibodies can be cultured indefinitely.

5. The invention of monoclonal antibody production techniques has provided immunologists with a robust and flexible research method. When each was awarded a Nobel prize, Köhler and Milstein’s work was remembered.

Catalyze enzymes of Monoclonal Antibodies :

In certain aspects, an antibody’s binding to its antigen is identical to the binding of an enzyme to its substrate. The binding includes weak, noncovalent interactions in both cases and shows high specificity and also high affinity. What separates an antibody-antigen interaction from an enzyme-substrate interaction is that the antibody does not alter the antigen. At the same time, a chemical alteration in its substrate is catalyzed by the enzyme. However, like enzymes, the transition state of a bound substrate can be stabilized by antibodies of approximate specificity, thus reducing the activation energy for substrate chemical modification.

Production of monoclonal antibodies :

The issue of whether some antibodies could act like enzymes and catalyze chemical reactions was raised by the similarities between antigen-antibody interactions and enzyme-substrate interactions. A hapten-carrier complex was synthesized to investigate this possibility, in which the hapten structurally resembled the transition state of an under-going hydrolysis ester.

1. To produce monoclonal anti-hapten monoclonal antibodies, spleen cells from mice immunized with this transition state equivalent were fused with myeloma cells.

2. Some of them accelerated hydrolysis by about 1,000-fold when these monoclonal antibodies were incubated with an ester substrate; that is, they behaved like the enzyme that usually catalyzes the hydrolysis of the substrate.

3. These antibodies catalytic activity was highly specific; i.e., only esters whose transition-state structure closely resembled the transition-state equivalent used in the immunizing conjugate as hapten was hydrolyzed.

4. About their dual function as antibody and enzyme, these catalytic antibodies have been called abzymes.

5. The central goal of catalytic antibody research is the derivation of a battery of abzymes that break peptide bonds at unique amino acid residues, as well as restriction enzymes that cut DNA at particular sites.

6. In both structural and functional analysis of proteins, such abzymes will be invaluable instruments.

7. Besides, it may be possible to manufacture abzymes with the potential to dissolve blood clots or break viral glycoproteins at specific locations, thus blocking viral infectivity.

8. Unfortunately, it has been challenging to derive catalytic antibodies that cleave peptide bonds of proteins.

Most of the latest research in this area is dedicated to solving this critical yet challenging problem.

Clinical Uses :

a. Clinical Medicine: In clinical medicine, monoclonal antibodies prove to be very useful as diagnostic, imaging, and therapeutic reagents. Initially, they were used primarily as in vitro diagnostic reagents. Products for detecting pregnancy, diagnosing various pathogenic microorganisms, measuring the blood levels of different medications, matching histocompatibility antigens, and detecting antigens shed by certain tumors are among the several monoclonal antibody diagnostic reagents now accessible.

b. Radiology: Radiolabeled monoclonal antibodies may also be used in vivo to identify or locate tumor antigens, allowing certain primary or metastatic tumors in patients to be detected early. For example, to detect a tumor’s spread to regional lymph nodes, monoclonal antibodies to breast cancer cells are labeled with iodine-131 and introduced into the blood. This monoclonal imaging technique will expose breast cancer metastases that would be undetected by other, less sensitive scanning techniques.

c. Immunology: Potentially useful therapeutic reagents are immunotoxins consisting of tumor-specific monoclonal antibodies coupled to lethal toxins.

Shigella toxin, diphtheria toxin, and ricin, all of which inhibit protein synthesis, are used in preparing immuno-toxins. These toxins are potent that a single molecule has been shown to kill a cell. Each of these toxins consists of two types of functionally different polypeptide components, an inhibitory chain and one or more binding chains that interact on cell surfaces with receptors; without the binding polypeptides, the toxin does not reach cells and is therefore harmless. By replacing the binding polypeptides with a monoclonal antibody unique to a specific tumor cell, an immuno-toxin is prepared.

The attached monoclonal antibody will, in principle, deliver the toxin chain directly to tumor cells, where it will cause death by protein synthesis inhibition. Initial clinical responses to such immunotoxins have shown promise in patients with leukemia, lymphoma, and other cancer forms. Further research is ongoing to improve and demonstrate their safety and efficacy.

MICROBIAL NUTRITION AND GROWTH

BY: SHREELAKSHMI S NIAR

Microorganisms require the supply of raw materials or elements to construct new cellular components, these raw materials are called nutrients. These nutrients are provided by the culture medium where the microbes grow. These medium provides the nutrients which is required for the energy, building of cell substances and biosynthesis of fermentation products. On the basis of requirement nutrition can be classified as

Macronutrients: Carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorous, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron are included in macronutrients. They are required by the microbes in large amount and constitutes over95% of cell dry weight.Potassium,calcium,magnesium,iron,iron exist in a cell which act as cofactor for enzyme whereas carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, phosphorous are the major components of biomolecules like carbohydrtes,proteins,lipids and nucleic acid.

Micronutrients: they are also called as trace elements. They require only in a small amount for microbes. It includes manganese, zinc, cobalt, nickel, molybdenum and copper. They mainly form a part of enzyme and help in catalysis of reaction. Contamination present in water, glasswares are sufficient to provide these nutrients.

Culture media components include inorganic nutrients, nitrogen supplements, carbon sources and growth factors. Inorganic Nutrients include Potassium Phosphate, Magnesium sulphate,Ammonium sulphate  or phosphate,Calcium carbonate.,Cobalt,  Copper, Iron, Mn, Mo, Zn.

NUTRITIONAL TYPES OF MICROORGANISMS

ON THE BASIS OF SOURCES OF CARBON

  1. Autotrophs: They majorly use carbon dioxide and hence they can carry out photosynthesis.
  2. Heterotrophs: They use reduced, performed organic molecules from other sources.

ON THE BASIS OF ENERGY SOURCE

  1. Lithotrophs: They reduced inorganic molecules as a source for electron.
  2. Organotrophs: They extract electrons from organic molecules.

ON THE BASIS OF THEIR PRIMARY SOURCE OF CARBON AND ENERGY

  1. Photolithoautotrophy: They use light as energy source and carbon dioxide source.E.G. Algae, cyanobacteria.
  2. Photoorganoheterotrophy: They use organic carbon and light as there source.
  3. Chemolithoautotrophy: They use inorganic compounds like iron, sulphur, nitrogen and carbon dioxide as the source.
  4. Chemoorganoheterotrophy: They generally use Organic molecule and carbon as there source.

MICROBIAL GROWTH

Growth is the orderly increase in all the components of an organism such as size or population number. The microbes are grown in batch culture or closed system. Because of the limited increase in cell size and frequency of cell division, growth in microorganisms is measured by increase in cell number. Bacteria multiply by binary fission, the process in which parent cell splits into two daughter cells. Bacterial cells first elongate, then followed by the formation of transverse membrane and new cell wall. The new membrane and cell wall will grow inward from the outer layers. Cell divides into two daughter cells. The growth of microorganisms reproducing by binary fission in culture can is plotted as the logarithm of the number of viable cells on Y-axis and the incubation time on X-axis. The resulting curve is called as standard bacterial growth curve that have four phases of growth namely lag phase, log phase, stationary phase and death phase.

Characteristics of Each Phase

  1. The Lag Phase: when the microorganisms are inoculate into fresh medium they do not increase significantly in number and thus this phase is called lag phase. But, the microbes are metabolically active and thus they increase in size. Enzymes, essential cofactors are formed and accumulate until they are present in concentrations that permit growth. They also produce quantities of energy in the form of ATP.it shows that they are preparing for replication. The length of lag phase depends on the condition of microorganisms and nature of medium. Refrigerated culture or microbes inoculated from chemically different media takes more time to adapt
  2. The Log or Exponential phase: The organisms divide at their most rapid rate .The population of organism’s doubles in this phase. The cell division depends upon the composition of growth and conditions of incubation. It provides the optimal conditions growth. Exponential growth can be balanced or unbalanced. When all the cellular constituents are synthesized at the constant rates relative to each other, it result in balanced growth and when rate of synthesis vary relative to each other, it is unbalanced growth. The bacteria’s at this stages are suitable for biochemical and morphological identification, drug sensitivity test.
  3.  The Stationary Phase: The cell division decreases to the point that new are produced at the same rate as old cells die, the total number of viable cells remains constant. The culture is said to be in stationary phase is represented by a horizontal straight line in the curve. At this phase, population may simply cease to divide but is metabolically active. This phase may result due to depletion of essential nutrients, lack of biological space, accumulation of toxic waste products.
  4. The Death Phase: As the condition of medium become more detrimental, population reaches in death phase, in which cells lose their ability to divide and thus, they die. In the death or decline phase ,the number of viable cells decreases exponentially, i.e., a constant proportion of cells dies every hour. However, sometimes death is not logarithmic and can vary with both environmental conditions and microorganisms involved. The duration of this phase depends on the genetic characteristics of the organisms.

MICROBIOLOGY COLLEGE IN MADHYA PRADESH

          

S.NO  COLLEGE NAME    TYPELOCATION           LINKS
1JIWAJI UNIVERSITY   PUBLIC   GWALIORwww.jiwaji.edu
2RABINDRA NATH TAGORE UNIVERSITY   PRIVATE   BHOPALrntu.ac.in
3KAMLA RAJA GIRLS GOVERNMENT POST GRADUATE COLLEGE (KRGGPGC)    GOVERNMENT  GWALIORhttp://krgcgwalior.org/
4DR. HARI SINGH GOUR UNIVERSITY  CENTRALSAGARwww.dhsgsu.ac.in
5CAREER COLLEGE   PRIVATE  BHOPALhttps://www.careercollegeindia.com/
6RAJEEV GANDHI COLLEGE  PRIVATE  BHOPALhttp://rgcbhopal.org/
7COLLEGE OF LIFE SCIENCES PRIVATE  BHOPALhttp://collegeoflifescience.org/
8BARKATULLAH UNIVERSITY  PUBLIC  BHOPAL
www.bubhopal.ac.in
 
9GOVERNMENT M L B GIRLS PG COLLEGEAUTONOMOUS  BHOPALhttp://www.mphighereducation.nic.in/mlbbpl
10DEVI AHILYA VISHYAVIDYALAYAPUBLIC  INDORE
www.dauniv.ac.in
 
11SHREE KRISHNA UNIVERSITYPRIVATE  CHHATARPURhttp://www.skuindia.ac.in/
12MAHARAJA RANJIT SINGH COLLEGE OF PROFESSIONAL SCIENCES (MRSC)PRIVATE  INDORE[www.mrscindore.org
13BONNIE FOI COLLEGE (BFC)PRIVATE  BHOPALhttp://bonniefoicollege.org/
14ATAL BIHARI VAJPAYEE HINDHI VISHWAVIDYALAYAPUBLIC  BHOPAL
www.abvhv.edu.in
 
15SAGE UNIVERSITYPRIVATE  BHOPALhttps://sageuniversity.edu.in/